| چکیده انگلیسی مقاله |
Abstract
Evidence has shown that the history of communication between the people of Iran and China, to the formation of powerful empires of two lands, goes back long before the rise of Islam. Attested by textual sources and archeological documents, the experience of successful communication between the two countries continued even after the fall of the Sassanid dynasty. Historical reports of the 7th to the 16th century AD provide important information about the ups and downs of relations between the two countries. The recovery of their communication processes has shown that a mutual or double-sided history has resulted in a two-sided outcome. According to these reports, the process of communication contains four stages (Fig. 3). However, this has been put aside by several archeological researchers, who directly find evidence of early communication from the discovered documents, which is far from their actual understanding. and archaeology having Cultural findings examined with a question-oriented behavior, we are looking for this concept, so that by relying on pottery findings, can the question of “To what extent do the chronology of pottery findings emphasize the process of dealings and its turbulence?” can be answered? To answer this question, the results and conclusions of investigation and studies of pottery findings in the ancient sites of this region have been used. The findings of the research showed that although the historical reports explicitly in some cases emphasize the complete cancellation of relations or its indirectness, but the chronology of the study of pottery finds in the Persian Gulf region shows a continuous trend in their import. And the result emphasizes the integrity of the information, especially the accuracy in the chronology of pottery findings and their quantitative study.
Keywords: Archeology, Persian Gulf, Maritime Trade, Siraf, Celadon Pottery.
1. Introduction
Although Chinese sources have mentioned a political relationship between from 649 to 745 CE (Park, 2012:6-7), the opportunity of restoration of land trade between the Umayyads and the Tang government did not arise. At the same time, because of the Battle of Talas, the history of the two societies entered a new phase and the sea route inevitably replaced the land route. In Fig. 6, the beginning and end of these periods can be seen according to the dynasties that came to power in Iran and China, as well as the period of prosperity of each of the commercial centers in the Persian Gulf region and imported ceramics into these centers. According to Table 3, which shows the classification and chronology of the potteries, six types of porcelains have been identified as imported pottery at the same time (649 to 745 CE), considering that the number of these porcelains is limited and their distribution is not widespread in the entire region, determining their real date is unclear and cannot be mentioned as the official beginning of the pottery trade.
2. Discussion
According to the evidence of the eighth century CE, sea travel in the Indian Ocean became the dominant method of direct and indirect communication between China and the Islamic World (Fig. 1). This alternation occurred simultaneously with the transfer of the capital to Baghdad, which was connected to Basra and the Persian Gulf through the Euphrates River. At this time (745 to 867 CE), the Abbasid government improved its relationship with the Tang government. But with Huang Chao’s rebellion, there was a long-term gap in direct long-distance maritime trade from 878 to 961 CE (Vosoughi,2017) causing trade to shift to Malay ports (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 137). In the Persian Gulf Region, Basra became less important due to a lack of proper management in development, population increase, and numerous unrests. The coins found at Siraf are a reminder of the increase in trade in the ninth century CE. At the same time, the Tang government started trading porcelains as goods (Guy,1990:9). The Belitung shipwreck is a clear example of the volume of Changsha pottery shipments at this period of time (Schottenhammer & 蕭婦, 2016: 151). Although the rebellion in China brought about instability and a decrease in direct relations, considerable volumes of imported ceramics have also been discovered at Siraf from this time period. The classification and chronology of the potteries of this site and the samples collected from the south of Iran show sixteen types of potteries (Table 3).
The third period (961 to about 1253 CE) happened after a recession. From the beginning of the fourth century and following the division of the Islamic World, the Fatimid caliphate in Egypt and Iranian governments in Iran began to rule. The people of Siraf were still playing a role in trade during this period. After a successful experience, this port went into decline and Kish quickly assumed the role of Siraf. Sohar and the port of Aden were under the control and rule of the Fatimids to obtain profits from trade (Vosoughi, 2017). At the same time, due to the Sriwijaya’s rule in the Strait of Malacca, direct communication with Chinese ports was disconnected. This process improved with the establishment of the Song Dynasty, and the kings of this dynasty made many facilities to encourage maritime trade (Medley, 1975:32). At this time, the Chinese government increased production for export and determined the flow of trade (Harrisson, 2003:99), encouraging the pottery trade to create balance in the trading business specially after 1111 CE (Guy, 1990:9). The classification and chronology of pottery types in the site of the Persian Gulf region (Table 3) shows sixteen types of imported pottery, which is a reminder of the encouragement of pottery trade during this era.
The process of dealings underwent major changes in the beginning of the thirteenth century AD with the formation of Mongol power and the occupation of China and Iran by Genghis and his successors. At this time, local governments played a special role in the process. Unlike Kish, Hormuz became a regional power and unlike Siraf, it became an independent base. In China, the Ming government replaced the Yuan Dynasty. Nevertheless, it still brought about the expansion of trade. These trans-regional connections changed with the arrival of the raiding Portuguese in the sixteenth century CE. Archeological studies show strong evidence of the volume of pottery imports in this period. The collection collected from Hormuz provides important information about the pottery trade in the second half of the seventh century later, between China and this region presented (Williamson, 1973: 56, m3, Morgan,1991:67). This date coincides with Zheng He’s trips to Hormuz (Meicun & Zhang, 2015:417), where coins were given as gifts by him. The samples obtained from Bahrain and Al-Qatif are reminders of this subject (Cribb and Potts, 1996:109). However, after his travels, there was a break until the presence of the Portuguese (Zhang, 2018:74). During this period, Chinese participation in the maritime trade of the Indian Ocean declined or did not exist at all (Lo, 1958:337-340). This decline may be due to the sea ban policy of the early Ming Dynasty, which was accompanied by great stagnation after 1407 AD. By the end of this century, China’s manufacturing industries were in severe decline, this is when the porcelain trade changed from celadon to blue and white potteries (Zhang, 2018:74).
3. Conclusion
Evidence suggests that historical accounts at times emphasize either a complete reversal or an indirect nature of commercial transactions. These shifts have had a direct impact on ceramic production in China, on patterns of export, the volume and variety of monetary exchanges, and even on the distribution of goods across the Persian Gulf region because of changing trade centers. Archaeological investigations have demonstrated that, although the demand for ceramics in this reciprocal exchange was largely unidirectional, ceramics remain the most reliable material evidence for reconstructing the processes of maritime trade. The data derived from ceramic finds can serve to confirm, challenge, or refine certain historical narratives, depending on their textual character. The chronological sequence of ceramic types rarely shows a clear break in importation, suggesting the need for further integrated and systematic research across the region particularly in light of the information presented in Figure 6. |